Review of “Degraded Images, Distorted Sounds: Nigerian Video and the Infrastructure of Piracy” by Brian Larkin

In the article “Degraded Images, Distorted Sounds: Nigerian Video and the Infrastructure of Piracy”, Brian Larkin discusses the matter of media piracy in Nigeria, and its effects on the technological, social, and economic infrastructure of the region, as well as its global effects. Larkin makes us realize just how key a role piracy has played in the development and distribution of media, both legal and illegal through Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Larkin describes this “pirate infrastructure” as “a powerful mediating force that produces new modes of organizing sensory perception, time, space, and economic networks.” (291)

Larkin dictates how the legal global media infrastructure uses new technologies. When reached by other peoples, these technologies create opportunities for new systems to develop and form their own paths. One such system is the piracy network in Nigeria, which has become so enormous that Nigeria is considered now to have two economies, the state-governed, legal economy, and the “shadow economy” which operates outside of the law (297).  These economies often overlap and often oppose one another.  The shadow economy has thrived with mainly the reproduction of Hollywood and Indian films. In recent years, there have been developments in Nigeria of “Hausa” films and Nigerian videos, which are produced legally in Nigeria, but could not be distributed without the technologies already in place from the shadow economy and piracy distribution.

Larkin continues to describe Nigeria as a place reliant on failed technologies and their repair. He explains that globalization has allowed access to new technologies, but the poverty of the nation dictates that the technologies are constantly failing and awaiting restoration. This causes tension, for people are aware of what technologies can do, but grow frustrated as their equipment does not work at full capability.  This also means that the quality of the pirated media decreases as it is copied, causing  “Degraded Images” and “Distorted Sounds.” Seeing as the equipment used to distribute the legal films is the same, these are also poor quality, and viewers adapt to this sort of media. This perception of media “shape[s] the ways these media take on cultural value and act on individuals and groups”(310).

The article gives deep insight into how one media distribution system affects the next, and how that affects people’s perception of media. However, I do not feel as though I fully understand its effect on culture and social function within society. For example, the article spoke about Nigerian society as generally poor. However, this does not imply that everyone in Nigeria is of the same economic status. I would assume that there are class differences within Nigeria, and people higher on the economic spectrum could afford more efficient technologies, and could therefore have access to higher quality media. Seeing as the Nigerian made media is not produced at all in high quality, it would make sense that the upper class remains influenced by only Hollywood and Indian media, for only they can afford to see these without degraded images or distorted sounds. This, I am sure, promotes subcultures within Nigerian society and class differences. However, the article hardly touched upon class differences that are bound to emerge.

Additionally, since the article was written in 2004, technology has developed even further, and as such, modes of piracy have changed. Today in highly developed societies, most piracy takes place on the internet, where illegal websites let viewers stream media for free in very high quality. Perhaps the use of the internet for illegal media consumption has spread to Nigeria, and perhaps that is causing damage to the once thriving pirate economy. Or perhaps the technology to stream videos online has not yet become easily accessible in this area, in which case we may predict a failure of the current Nigerian piracy system in the future. The role that this could have in changing media perception for the people is potentially tremendous. 

The article makes an interesting point about our perception of global media. That is to say that we often think of globalization in terms of media from the developed world spreading to other nations, creating a common “world” culture. It is rarely addressed however, how the media changes as it gets from one place to the next and how those changes in particular effect the perceptions of viewers. For example, we may have considered how the messages of Hollywood movies affect viewers in Nigeria, but we never seem to consider how the poor quality of the footage being viewed in Nigeria sends a message in itself.  Additionally, as Larkin states, we often interpret globalization as nations that “have” and nations that “do not have” but it is not so simple. Larkin explains that even poor countries “have” modern technologies, but do not have the luxury of using these technologies at their full potential. 

Larkin, through the example of piracy infrastructure provides deeper insight to core concepts mentioned in David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Stefania Milan’s Media/Society. The 10th chapter of this book, discusses globalization and “crossing the limits of time and space”(326). The article not only expands on how the use of copying technologies distorts perceptions of time and space, but also on the reality of media globalization in contrast with it’s promise, which in this case is shown as the promise of new technologies in media and the reality of their failure to work at full potential. 

Word Count: 900

 

Goffman’s Gender Advertisements

1. Introduction

Erving Goffman, in “Gender Advertisements” warns his readers that we cannot take too seriously the representations of gender behavior portrayed in advertisements, and even states that his sampling of pictures was not chosen at random. He does say, however, that we should still take his article seriously, for the patterns he recognizes still apply in the modern world. He explains that although he chose specific images, the abundance of advertisements in today’s world is so vast, and will continue to grow. These patterns do exist, for there can be such a large sampling of examples. We must recognize these patterns to understand gender roles in society. Even though gender roles continue to change, leaning more toward equality as the future progresses, images and representations of gender in advertisements still portray gender roles, (even if this is done so quite subtly) in a less modern fashion.

2. Analysis

A. Publication: Lucky Magazine, November 2011

B. Totals

• Total number of discrete ads: 70
• Number of ads with Human subjects: 44
• Number of ads depicting a woman alone: 34
• Number of ads depicting a man alone: 2

C. Definitions

a) The Feminine Touch: Women are often seen touching either objects, people, or themselves in a delicate, soft manner, with a bent hand or light pressing of skin. It is not manipulating or grasping something, but delicately outlining it.

b) The Ritualization of Subordination: Seeing a figure above another gives us the notion that the top is superior. If someone is placed lower in frame, or his/her head is bent lower, he/she is portrayed as subordinate. If a figure is lying down, he/she is subordinate: his/her stance implies that this person is not any threat. For the same reason, bent knees, a tilted head, or childish stance might be classified as subordination. Normally women in advertisements are represented like this.

c) Licensed Withdrawal: Women are portrayed as psychologically removed from the situation, implying that they must rely on others. This is shown with an averted gaze, a look of fear or uneasiness, or hands/fingers covering their face.

D. Examples

Feminine Touch: Hand caressing and Facial Touching

Feminine Touch: Self Touching

Ritual of Subordination: Racial Subordination (The lighter skinned woman is positioned higher in the frame)

Ritual of Subordination: Gender Subordination (the man is on top of the woman, and her head is tilted sideways while his is straight)

Licensed Withdrawal: Averted Gaze

Licensed Withdrawal: Face Covering

 

E. Male Representation

This advertisement represents the typical man according to Goffman. He is not touching or caressing anything. He has a serious facial expression, and he is standing upright, with his head straight. He has no sense of subordination, and is looking straight into the camera so there is no withdrawal.

Here, the man has a serious expression and his face is upright, there is no subordination. His arm is stretched, and his hand is clenched into a fist, so his fingers are not delicately outstretched. Instead, the clench fist connotes aggression or manipulation.

The man’s head is in front of the woman’s and he rests his chin on top of her which may imply his dominance over her. It is hard to distinguish more distinct examples of gender inequality, for their gazes are both averted, and both of their faces are partially covered.

 

F. An Image Running Counter to Goffman

This woman stares into the camera with a serious expression on her face, and there is no feminine touching or subordination. This is the one image I found most contrary to Goffman’s views on gender advertising, yet still there is partial facial covering which may play into Licensed Withdrawal.

“Stereotyping Asian Americans: The Dialectic of the Model Minority and the Yellow Peril” By Yuko Kawai

• The yellow peril is a racial stereotype constructed in the west, with a longer history than the model minority stereotype in the U.S. It’s root is traced back to the threat of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian invasion of Europe. The West feared that Asian peoples would “threaten the domination of the white race.” (Kawai, 112) In the U.S. this stereotype “signified the fear of Asian American migration”(112)  in the late 19th Century. Due to the image of East Asia’s large population size, and the fact that Japan was becoming an imperial power, white Americans feared that the white nation would be over-taken. The Pearl Harbor bombing in 1941 inflated the yellow peril stereotype. After the communist revolution in China, China became the new embodiment of the yellow peril.
• The model minority stereotype began in 1966 with the publication of two articles that commended Asian Americans and portrayed them as being serious about education, having close family ties, and being law-abiding. By stating that Asian Americans were making it on their own despite their race, this promoted the racial ideology of “color blind talk” According to Kawai, it serves to “rhetorically disguise fundamentally racial claims.”(113) In this way, the success of Asian Americans is supposed to paint the U.S. society as being “fair and open for racial minority groups to move up the social ladder” (114) By commending Asian Americans in this stereotype, the media also downgrades other racial minorities. Kawai also states that “Asian Americans were made as the model minority partly because Japan re-demonstrated its willingness and “ability” to go along with the West/White.”(115) This refers to after the Second World War when Japan was experiencing Economic Growth.
• Kawai explains the dialectic between these two stereotypes: They are inseparable. Kawai references Okihiro, who stated that the relationship is cyclic, and made the comparison that the yellow peril gives Asian Americans a masculine identity while the model minority gives them a feminine identity. He states that “the model minority mitigates the alleged danger of the yellow peril, whereas reversing direction, the model minority, if taken too far, can become the yellow peril.” (Okihiro, 142) “People of Asian decent become the model minority when they are depicted to do better than other racial minority groups, whereas they become the yellow peril when they are described to outdo white Americans.” Kawai goes into more detail with this in his examination of the reemergence ot the two steryotypes in the 1980s due to the deteriorating trade relationship between the U.S. and various nations in Asia.
• The idea of racial triangulation: In the United States, Asian Americans are positioned to be superior to African Americans, but they are still labeled to White Americans as foreign.
• Stereotypes: Stereotypes are a way of separating things into categories, highlighting differences to create meaning. However Stereotyping is problematic because it takes place where power is unequal. “That is, people are not equal in deciding boundaries; a certain dominant group has more power to do so, and the meaning that that group creates tends to win consensus.”(Kawai 118)
• Kawai analyzes how in the film “Rising Sun,”(A film that took place during a time of economic stress between the U.S. and Japan) both a character in the introduction and the nation of Japan and the Japanese both project BOTH the yellow peril and model minority stereotypes simultaneously. he also explains how racial triangulation is necessary to display both stereotypes for one group of people.

Discussion Question:

Can we think of other examples of racial triangulation in society? Do you think there are any more examples of the U.S. using the “colorblind talk” to enable racial stratification?

Clip:

Steven Colbert is a representation of the White Conservative pundit, whose “veiws” are extreme, often pointing to the absurdity of many aspects of our culture. Here he makes a bunch of incredibly offensive Asian stereotypes, and while this is an extreme case, it shows us the kinds of ideas being portrayed by other pundits.

http://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/386776/may-23-2011/on-topic–the-continents—asia

The Walt Disney Company’s 10K of October 2010

Assets

The Walt Disney Company operates in “Five business segments: Media Networks, Parks and Resorts, Studio Entertainment, Consumer Products, and Interactive Media.”(1)  Immediately, at the beginning of the Business report, the first significant change is revealed in the mention of the acquisition of Marvel Entertainment, Inc. which took place on December 31st, 2009.

Media Networks

The Media Networks owned by Disney include ABC Network, which is the ubrella over 10 Domestic television stations. The cable networks owned by disney include ESPN (6 stations), Disney Channels Worldwide (5 stations), ABC Family, SOAPnet, and A&E/Lifetime (7 stations). Most of the stations owned by Disney also have websites that stream their programs and receive advertiser revenue. It should be noted that another  two significant changes are mentioned with the closing of 5 ESPN Zone restaurants in June of 2010 and the transition of SOAPnet in the beginning of 2012 to “ Disney Junior, which will be a 24-hour channel carrying children’s programming.”(5)  The company owns Radio Disney stations in 37 major cities across the United States.

Parks and Resorts

The largest resort owned by Disney is The Walt Disney World resort in Orlando, Florida, which consists of four different parks: Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Disney’s Hollywood Studios, Disney’s Animal Kingdom. The company also holds a variety of Hotels and other resort facilities as a part of Walt Disney World, such as Downtown Disney and ESPN’s Wide World of Sports. The Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California consists of two Parks: Disneyland, and Disney California Adventure, as well as a number of hotels and other resort facilities. Other worldwide resorts include Disneyland Paris, Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, and Tokyo Disney Resort. Each of these international resorts includes 1-2 parks and a number of hotels and/or other facilities. Disney also owns Disney Cruise line, and Disney Vacation Club.

Studio Entertainment

In the segment of Studio Entertainment an important change is noted that in August, 2009, “the company entered into an agreement with DreamWorks Studios (“DreamWorks”) to distribute live-action motion pictures produced by DreamWorks over the next seven years under the Touchstone Pictures banner.”(13) Disney mentions their theatrical market, responsible for producing feature films to be shown in theaters, the home entertainment market, from which they sell home entertainment releases, their television market, which includes a number of subscription based television channels, and the Disney Music Group, which includes a number of different record labels. Disney also mentions their ownership of theatrical production licenses like The Little Mermaid, Mary Poppins, and Aida.

Consumer Products

Disney produces many consumer products. This segment is divided into Merchandise Licensing, Publishing, and Retail. Merchandise Licensing includes “a diverse range of product categories.”(15) This means they earn royalties for the use of their characters in consumer products. Disney Publishing Worldwide produces children’s books and magazines, and owns Disney Global Books which now produces digital books. The company also “markets Disney-themed products directly through retail stores operated under the Disney Store name and through internet sites.”(16)

Interactive Media

The company “creates, develops, markets and distributes console, handheld, online and mobile games worldwide”(16) that are based on the characters and plot lines previously established in their studio entertainment media. A change noted here is “On August 27, 2010, the Company completed the acquisition of Playdom, Inc., a company that develops and publishes online games for social networking websites.”(16) Disney also produces and distributes content for Disney online services.

 

Risk Factors

The basic risk factors listed in Disney’s fiscal report included:

Should there be a change in the economic conditions internationally or domestically, the sale of products is generally affected. For example, in recent years, due to the economic recession being faced by the United Stated, revenue collected from Disney Resorts has decreased dramatically. Disney predicts a more dramatic decrease in revenue across the board should the financial situation continue on its downward slope.

Often trends in society occur and fade rapidly. With the changing mindset of the consumer society comes the unpredictability of the popularity of a company’s product. Because products often have to be conceived and manufactured before they are distributed to the public, there is no way to tell how they will be perceived by society.

In this modern age, new technologies are constantly being invented and advanced. In order for the company to succeed they have to constantly stay updated on the latest products to produce their entertainment. Additionally, the new technologies effect the way consumers will be viewing a company’s products and how these new forms of product usage should be purchased.

The business cannot thrive if people are accessing products easily in an unauthorized manner. For example, illegal video streaming, if increased in number, can start to cripple an entertainment company. Inadequate laws or weak law enforcement of intellectual property rights also result in a loss of revenue for the company.

There are many unpredictable and uncontrollable factors that may reduce sales in certain areas. For example, natural disasters, bad whether, terrorist attacks, or military and political developments may reduce travel to a Disney resort, which would negatively impact the company’s overall revenue.

If the company decides to restructure part of their business or rethink their business strategy, while the company is under construction, costs of products may increase.

If the economic market is incredibly unstable, the company may have to borrow higher amounts of money, which would make them unable to invest in their productions fully. This will decrease the amount of productions made, and the production value, which will directly lead to a decrease in revenue.

If competition increases significantly, pressures increase on the company, and it could result in the raise of prices of the company’s products, or a decrease in their overall revenue.

If the cost of pension and medical care increase, the company may struggle financially. The company overall requires the employment of such a vast number of staff that to pay health care for every employee as the health rate increases could have a serious negative impact on their finances.

If long term contracts are not renewed sufficiently for the acquisition and distribution of media products, programming or distribution rights may be lost, meaning the revenue from the distribution of programs will be lost.

Changes in government regulation may negatively effect profitability. The company may need to send additional amounts of money to government to comply with regulations.

If laws in international markets change, the international branches of the business could lose revenue.

Labor disputes are likely to prevent a high profitability rate, seeing as it could mean a decrease in labor, or having to pay staff higher wages.

Many aspects of the company act seasonally, and patterns in advertising, whether, and other seasonal factors may adversely affect profitability as well.

 

According to Hoover’s, Disney’s Top Five Competitors are News Corp., Time Warner, NBC Universal, CBS Corp, and Viacom.

 

Sapir, Postman, and Social Media

It has been argued that the culture of a society is largely based on, if not mainly generated by the different methods of sharing information within society. In both the article “Communication” by Edward Sapir, and the chapter “The Information Environment” from the book Teaching as a Conserving Activity by Neil Postman, this claim is supported and elaborated.

In “Communication,” Sapir discusses two important results of “far-reaching effects of communication.” First, he explains that far-reaching communication techniques “increase the sheer radius of communication” (Sapir: 77) and in doing so allow information and culture to spread so far through the world as to give commonalities to many different cultures. The second effect Sapir describes is as follows. Far-reaching communication makes separate societies, or groups that may be geographically separate, equivalent in culture to that of a single society. This also means that areas that are closer together may differ more drastically in culture than they did before the days of far-reaching technology. Sapir uses the example of urban and suburban areas. Although big cities are far from one another, their culture is more similar than that of their surrounding suburbs.

In the second chapter of the book by Neil Postman, several inter-related properties of information are discussed. These properties are the form in which information is distributed, the quantity or magnitude of its distribution/absorption, and the speed or velocity of such. Postman explains that these are interrelated, for the magnitude of the information we receive relies heavily on the form in which it is transmitted to us. The speed at which the information travels also is deeply dependent on its form, and this speed determines not only the magnitude of the societal absorption of information, but also who can access it, and under what circumstances. Postman’s thesis is “that the configuration of these properties… comprises an invisible environment around which we form our ideas…”(Postman: 41)

When considering both of these works in relation to our newest modes of communication, we find that they still hold incredibly true. In accordance with Sapir’s ideas, the use of social media such as Facebook and Twitter has condensed youth culture throughout not only the United States, but the world. Adolescents from cities in Europe to cities in Asia, and all across the Americas have made it part of their regular behavior to update their statuses, comment on their friends’ walls, and check in with whoever they are following on Twitter. Additionally, Postman comments in his work that “…the most potent revolutionaries are those people who invent new media of communication…” (Postman: 45) Mark Zuckerberg, the creator of Facebook might be seen as such a revolutionary. That is not to say that this new form of media is not dangerous. Its form, and incredibly high velocity lead to an abundance of information being taken in by the users of the site every day, and this overabundance of information, according to Postman, may lead to a downfall of society.